Application layer(7) Recognized as the top layer of the OSI model, this layer serves as the window for application services. home of email programs, FTP, Telnet, web browsers, and office productivity suites, a viruses, worms, Trojan horse programs,

Presentation layer(6) The Presentation layer is responsible for taking data that has been passed up from lower levels and putting it into a format that Application layer programs can understand. The most critical process handled at this layer is encryption and decryption.

Session layer(5) Its functionality is put to use when creating, controlling, or shutting down a TCP session. Items such as the TCP connection establishment and TCP connection occur here. Session-layer protocols include items such as Remote Procedure Call and SQLNet from Oracle. The Session layer is vulnerable to attacks such as session hijacking. A session hijack can occur when a legitimate user has his session stolen by a hacker.

Transport layer(4) ensures completeness by handling end-to-end error recovery and flow control. Transport-layer protocols include TCP, a connection-oriented protocol. TCP provides reliable communication through the use of handshaking, acknowledgments, error detection, and session teardown, as well as User Datagram Protocol (UDP), a connectionless protocol. UDP offers speed and low overhead as its primary advantage. Security concerns at the transport level include Synchronize (SYN) attacks, Denial of Service (DoS), and buffer overflows.

Network layer(3). logical addressing and routing. The Network layer is the home of the Internet Protocol (IP), which makes a best effort at delivery of datagrams from their source to their destination. Security concerns at the network level include route poisoning, DoS, spoofing, and fragmentation attacks. Fragmentation attacks occur when hackers manipulate datagram fragments to overlap in such a way to crash the victim’s computer. IPSec is a key security service that is available at this layer.

Data Link layer(2). is responsible for formatting and organizing the data before sending it to the Physical layer. The Data Link layer organizes the data into frames. A frame is a logical structure in which data can be placed; it’s a packet on the wire. When a frame reaches the target device, the Data Link layer is responsible for stripping off the data frame and passing the data packet up to the Network layer. The Data Link layer is made up of two sub layers, including the logical link control layer (LLC) and the media access control layer (MAC). You might be familiar with the MAC layer, as it shares its name with the MAC addressing scheme. These 6-byte (48-bit) addresses are used to uniquely identify each device on the local network. A major security concern of the Data Link layer is the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) process. ARP is used to resolve known Network layer addresses to unknown MAC addresses. ARP is a trusting protocol and, as such, can be used by hackers for ARP poisoning, which can allow them access to traffic on switches they should not have.

Physical layer(1). bit-level communication takes place. The bits have no defined meaning on the wire, but the Physical layer defines how long each bit lasts and how it is transmitted and received. From a security standpoint, you must be concerned anytime a hacker can get physical access. By accessing a physical component of a computer network—such as a computer, switch, or cable—the attacker might be able to use a hardware or software packet sniffer to monitor traffic on that network. Sniffers enable attacks to capture and decode packets. If no encryption is being used, a great deal of sensitive information might be directly available to the hacker.

from CEH

1. XSS
1. Severity : High
2. URI was set to 1<div style=width:expression(prompt(957586))>
   URL encoded GET input genre was set to " onmouseover=prompt(968437) bad="
   
   
   
2. Application Error Msg
1. Severity : Medium
2. URL encoded GET input key was set to '"'");|]*{%0d%0a<%00>
   Error message found:

   java.lang.NumberFormatException: For input string:

   
   
   
3. Error Msg on Page
1. Severity : Medium
2. Pattern found:

   java.lang.NumberFormatException: For input string:

   
   
   
4. Insecure crossdomain.xm
1. Severity : Medium
2. The browser security model normally prevents web content from one domain from accessing data from another domain. This is commonly known as the "same origin policy". URL policy files grant cross-domain permissions for reading data. They permit operations that are not permitted by default. The URL policy file is located, by default, in the root directory of the target server, with the name crossdomain.xml (for example, at www.example.com/crossdomain.xml).
   
   When a domain is specified in crossdomain.xml file, the site declares that it is willing to allow the operators of any servers in that domain to obtain any document on the server where the policy file resides. The crossdomain.xml file deployed on this website opens the server to all domains (use of a single asterisk "*" as a pure wildcard is supported) like so:

   <cross-domain-policy>
   <allow-access-from domain="*" />
   </cross-domain-policy>
   

   This practice is suitable for public servers, but should not be used for sites located behind a firewall because it could permit access to protected areas. It should not be used for sites that require authentication in the form of passwords or cookies. Sites that use the common practice of authentication based on cookies to access private or user-specific data should be especially careful when using cross-domain policy files.
   This vulnerability affects Server.

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• Encapsulation
• keep implementation private and separate from interface
  
• Polymorphism
• different objects, same interface
  
• Inheritance
• hierarchical organization, share code, customize or extend behaviors

Shark is a performance-analysis application that creates a time-based profile of your program’s execution; over a given period it traces function calls and graphs memory allocations. You can use Shark to track information for a single program or for the entire system, which on Mac OS X includes kernel components such as drivers and kernel extensions. Shark also monitors file-system calls, traces system calls and memory allocations, performs static analyses of your code, and gathers information about cache misses, page faults, and other system metrics. Shark supports the analysis of code written in C, Objective-C, C++, and other languages.

Other Performance Applications (Mac OS X)

Many applications are used in measuring and analyzing aspects of a Mac OS X program’s performance. They are located in <Xcode>/Applications/Performance Tools.

• Thread Viewer displays activity among a process’s threads. It shows time lines of activity on each thread, which is color-coded with the action. By clicking a time line, you can get a sample backtrace of activity at that point.

• BigTop graphs performance trends over time, providing a real-time display of memory usage, page faults, CPU usage, and other data.

• Spin Control automatically samples unresponsive applications. You leave Spin Control running in the background while you launch and test your applications. If applications become unresponsive to the point where the spinning cursor appears, Spin Control automatically samples your application to gather information about what your application was doing during that time.

• MallocDebug shows all currently allocated blocks of memory in your program, organized by the call stack at the time of allocation. At a glance you can see how much allocated memory your application consumes, where that memory was allocated from, and which functions allocated large amounts of memory. MallocDebug can also find allocated memory that is not referenced elsewhere in the program, thus helping you find leaks and track down exactly where the memory was allocated.

• QuartzDebug is a tool to help you debug how your application displays itself. It is especially useful for applications that do significant amounts of drawing and imaging. QuartzDebug has several debugging options, including the following:

  • Auto-flush drawing, which flushes the contents of graphics contexts after each drawing operation)

  • A mode that paints regions of the screen in yellow just before they’re updated

  • An option that takes a static snapshot of the system-wide window list, giving the owner of each window and how much memory each window consumes.

For performance analysis, you can also use command-line tools such as:

• top, which shows a periodically sampled set of statistics on currently running processes

• gprof, which produces an execution profile of a program

• fs_usage, which displays file-system access statistics

Many other command-line tools for performance analysis and other development tasks are available. Some are located in /usr/bin and /usr/sbin, and some Apple-developed command-line tools are installed in <Xcode>/Tools. For many of these tools you can consult their manual page for usage information. (To do this, either choose Help > Open man page in Xcode or type man followed by the name of the tool in a Terminal shell.)